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ITHE  ENGLISH   BIBLE 


Some  Account  of  its  Origin 
and  Various  Versions 


BY 


GEORGE  HENRY  NETTLETON 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH  IN  THE  SHEFFIELD  SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOL 
OF  YALE  UNIVERSITY 


NEW  YORK 

HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 

1911 


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THE  ENGLISH   BIBLE 


Some  Account  of  its  Origin 
and  Various  Versions 


BY 


GEORGE  HENRY  NETTLETON 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH   IN  THE  SHEFFIELD  SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOL 
OF  YALE  UNIVERSITY 


NEW  YORK 

HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 

1911 


K^' 


Copyright,  191  i, 

BY 

HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 


t     c     *    c    .^e    .,       ' 


NOTE 

The  following  pages  are  a  reprint  of  the  In- 
troduction to  the  original  edition  of  Old  Testament 
Narratives  (Henry  Holt  and  Company,  1909). 
The  aim  has  been  to  indicate  briefly  the  processes 
by  which  the  Bible  has  come  into  its  modern  Eng- 
lish form.  I  have  tried  to  present  to  the  general 
reader  many  of  the  chief  results  of  scholarship  in 
fields  in  which  I  can  make  no  pretense  to  original 
investigation.  Of  the  more  general  and  popular 
works  which  I  have  found  helpful  I  may  mention 
especially  A  General  View  of  the  History  of  the 
English  Bible,  by  Brooke  F.  Westcott,  D.D.,  and 
The  Bible  as  English  Literature,  by  Professor  J. 
H.  Gardiner.  I  am  indebted  to  Professor  C.  C. 
Torrey,  of  Yale,  for  valuable  comments  on  my 
manuscript  and  proof. 

January  28,  igii. 


242449 


INTRODUCTION 

The  most  obvious  fact  about  the  English  Bible 
is  that  it  is  a  translation.  Translation  usually  im- 
plies distinct  loss  in  both  the  letter  and  spirit  of  the 
original,  but  the  English  Bible  has  been  the  most 
vital  influence  upon  the  thought  and  expression  of 
the  English  race.  Its  vigor  and  spontaneity  ani- 
mate alike  religious  and  secular  literature.  Its 
vocabulary  and  phrase  are  part  of  the  genius  of  the 
language.  Since  it  is,  however,  a  translation,  some 
account  should  first  be  given  of  the  origin  and 
development  of  the  original  Bible. 

I.       THE    ORIGIN    AND    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

The  word  "  Bible,"  singular  in  usage,  but  plural  in 
derivation,  suggests  at  the  outset  that  ''  The  Book  " 
is  really  a  unified  collection  of  books.  The  most 
casual  reader  cannot  fail  to  note  division  not  merely 
between  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  but  between 
different  parts  of  the  same  Testament.  Certain 
current  phrases,  furthermore,  emphasize  the  group- 
relationship  of  individual  books — *'  the  books  of 
Moses,"  "  the  Gospels,"  ''  the  Epistles."  One  of 
the  most  familiar  verses  in  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  reads  thus :  "  Therefore  all  things  whatso- 
ever ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  even 
so  to  them:  for  this  is  the  law  and  the  prophets." 


jciv  <  .  INTRODUCTION 

Later  in  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  occurs  this  passage : 
''  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy 
heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  mind. 
This  is  the  first  and  great  commandment.  And  the 
second  is  like  unto  it,  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour 
as  thyself.  On  these  two  commandments  hang  all 
the  law  and  the  prophets."  In  each  quotation  the 
final  phrase  is  significant.  It  points  to  a  distinction 
between  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  as  familiar 
then  as  the  distinction  between  the  two  Testaments 
is  to-day.  In  its  more  extended  form,  **  The  Law, 
the  Prophets,  and  the  Other  Writings  (or,  the  Rest 
of  the  Books),"  the  phrase  marks  with  reasonable 
accuracy  the  three  major  divisions  in  the  formation 
of  the  Old  Testament. 

The  processes  of  development  within  each  divi- 
sion may  be  illustrated  sufficiently  by  some  com- 
ment upon  the  so-called  ''  five  books  of  Moses." 
Whoever  reads  the  account  of  the  death  of  Moses 
in  the  last  chapter  of  Deuteronomy  sees  that  the 
tradition  which  ascribes  the  authorship  of  the  first 
five  books  of  the  Bible  to  Moses  cannot  be  accepted 
literally  in  complete  detail.  In  an  earlier  chapter 
in  Deuteronomy,  where  Moses  bids  the  Levites  place 
the  "  book  of  the  law  "  which  he  had  written  "  in 
the  side  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant,"  the  reference 
is  evidently  not  to  the  complete  Pentateuch,  or 
-'*  five  books  of  Moses,"  in  the  form  now  known 
to  the  English  reader.  Obviously  the  Pentateuch 
developed  gradually,  assuming  final  form  only  after 
many  transitional  stages.  Hebrew  literature  fol- 
lowed a  natural  course.  With  primitive  peoples 
records   are   transmitted   rather   by   oral   tradition 


INTRODUCTION  xv 

than  by  written  document.  With  progress  from  a 
nomadic  state  to  more  formal  pohtical  organization 
comes  the  need  of  permanent  laws  and  records.  It 
has  been  claimed  that  the  earliest  written  record  in 
the  Pentateuch  was  probably  the  "  ten  words  of 
Moses,"  afterwards  expanded  into  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments. At  all  events,  as  the  legal  and  cere- 
monial aspects  of  Hebrew  life  and  religion  devel- 
oped, there  was  a  growing  necessity  for  definite 
written  documents.  Broadly  speaking,  the  process 
that  went  on  was  the  constant  transmission  and 
revision,  from  age  to  age,  of  ever  increasing  literary 
material — history,  law,  poetry,  religious  ritual — 
until  the  original  elements  were  moulded  into  a 
composite  mass. 

Higher  Criticism  has  been  busy  with  the  task  of 
resolving  this  composite  into  its  original  elements. 
Its  general  conclusions  may  be  briefly  indicated. 
The  Pentateuch,  in  its  final  form,  comes  chiefly 
from  the  hands  of  priestly  writers  during  and  after 
the  Hebrew  exile  in  Babylon.  Previously  the 
various  documents  included  in  it  had  undergone 
several  revisions.  Four  writers,  or  sets  of  writers, 
can  be  distinguished  in  the  final  composite.  Of 
these  the  earliest  are  designated  as  the  Jahvist  (or 
Jehovist),  who  uses  "  Jahveh,"  and  the  Elohist, 
who  uses  "  Elohim,"  to  render  "  God."  They  date 
respectively  from  about  850  and  750  B.C.  Their 
work,  found  chiefly  in  the  Pentateuch  and>  Joshua, 
was  united  by  a  later  hand.  The  third  writer,  the 
Deuteronomist,  dates  from  Josiah's  promulgation 
of  the  original  Deuteronomy  in  621  B.C.  Finally 
come  the  Priestly  revisers,  especially  about  the  time 


xvi  INTRODUCTION 

of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  in  the  fifth  century  b.c. 
Various  considerations  of  statement,  style,  and 
viewpoint  aid  the  BibHcal  scholar  in  distinguishing 
the  original  elements  thus  merged  in  the  final  com- 
posite record. 

After  the  student  of  literature  has  become,  some- 
what familiar  with  the  general  processes  of  evolu- 
tion of  the  text  of  the  Bible,  his  inquiry  is  apt  to 
turn  toward  the  reasons  for  the  inclusion  of  some 
and  the  rejection  of  other  books  in  the  formation 
of  the  accepted  Bible.  The  word  "  Canon,"  mean- 
ing in  the  original  Greek  a  "  straight  rod,"  is  figu- 
ratively applied  to  those  Scriptures  which  are  ac- 
cepted as  genuinely  of  sacred  authority,  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  "  apocryphal "  books  of  uncertain 
authority.  In  621  b.c.  King  Josiah  took  the  ''  book 
of  the  law  "  found  by  the  high  priest,  read  it  in 
solemn  assembly  to  his  people,  and  "  made  a  cove- 
nant before  the  Lord,  to  walk  after  the  Lord,  and 
to  keep  his  commandments  and  his  testimonies  and 
his  statutes  with  all  their  heart  and  all  their  soul, 
to  perform  the  words  of  this  covenant  that  were 
written  in  this  book.  And  all  the  people  stood  to 
the  covenant."  (2  Kings  xxiii.  3.)  The  act  marks 
the  acceptance  of  certain  written  words  as  invested 
with  peculiar  sanctity. 

During  the  period  of  the  Babylonian  exile,  in  the 
sixth  century  b.c,  the  priests  developed  more  and 
more  the  authority  of  the  Law.  About  the  middle 
of  the  next  century  there  returned  from  Babylon 
to  Jerusalem  with  the  second  section  of  the  Hebrew 
exiles,  *'  a  ready  scribe  in  the  law  of  Moses  "  named 
Ezra.     He  had  *'  prepared  his  heart  to  seek  the  law 


INTRODUCTION  xvii 

of  the  Lord,  and  to  do  it,  and  to  teach  in  Israel 
statutes  and  judgments."  It  has  been  suggested 
that  he  was  "  the  final  redactor  of  the  Pentateuch, 
separating  it  from  the  historical  work  consisting  of 
Joshua  and  the  subsequent  writings."  He  seems 
at  least  a  central  figure  in  the  establishment  of  the 
"  Law  "  as  the  final  authority  for  the  guidance  of 
his  race. 

The  second  division,  or  "  layer,"  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Canon — the  ''  Prophets  " — is  linked  with  the 
name  of  Nehemiah.  The  second  chapter  of  the 
second  book  of  the  Maccabees  records  that 
Nehemiah,  ''  founding  a  library,  gathered  together 
the  acts  of  the  kings,  and  the  prophets,  and  of 
David,  and  the  epistles  of  the  kings  concern- 
ing the  holy  gifts."  Nehemiah's  collection  included 
probably  the  historical  books  beginning  with  Joshua, 
most  of  the  prophetic  books,  and  some  writings  that 
did  not  establish  themselves  in  the  Canon.  Later 
works,  like  the  book  of  Jonah,  were  afterwards 
added,  but  in  the  second  century  B.C.  the  frequent 
use  of  the  phrase,  *'  The  Law  and  the  Prophets," 
seems  to  show  that  the  second  division  of  the  Old 
Testament  had  been  completed,  and  accepted  side 
by  side  with  the  "  Law." 

The  third  division  of  the  Old  Testament  includes 
the  "  Other  Writings,"  or  "  The  Rest  of  the  Books." 
Their  varying  character  and  contents  raise  many 
details  of  controversy,  but  the  general  basis  for  their 
inclusion  in  the  Canon  is  largely  their  connection 
with  the  previously  accepted  books.  Thus  the 
Psalms  gain  authority  by  association  with  David, 
and  Proverbs  with   Solomon.     Disputes  as  to  the 


xviii  INTRODUCTION 

inclusion  of  such  books  as  Esther  and  Ecclesiastes 
did,  indeed,  persist  vigorously  until  about  the  end 
of  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  and  spas- 
modically even  later.  Furthermore,  even  the  final 
establishment  of  the  regular  Hebrew  Canon  did  not 
settle  the  matter  for  all  sects.  The  Samaritans 
accepted  only  the  Pentateuch,  while  the  Alexandrian 
Jews  used  the  Greek  version  of  the  Scriptures,  the 
''  Septuagint,"  which  intermingled  canonical  and 
apocryphal  books. 

Josephus,  the  historian,  in  a  memorable,  but  not 
wholly  accurate  passage  {Contra  Apion.  i.  8),  shows 
the  attitude  of  many  toward  the  Hebrew  Canon  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  first  century  a.d.  :  "  For  we 
have  not  an  innumerable  multitude  of  books  among 
us  .  .  .  but  only  twenty-two  books,  which  con- 
tain the  records  of  all  the  past  times :  which  are 
justly  believed  to  be  divine."  His  added  statement, 
that  since  the  days  of  Artaxerxes — in  whose  reign 
Ezra  returned  from  Babylon — "  no  one  has  been  so 
bold  as  either  to  add  anything  to  them,  to  take  any- 
thing from  them,  or  to  make  any  change  in  them," 
is  disproved  by  the  history  of  his  own  century,  but 
there  were  many  to  share  the  belief  that  the  Hebrew 
Canon  was  closed.  The  modern  reader  notices  the 
discrepancy  between  the  thirty-nine  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  as  they  now  stand,  and  the  number 
given  by  Josephus.  His  list  includes  five  books  of 
Moses,  thirteen  of  the  Prophets,  and  four  of 
"  hymns  to  God  and  precepts  for  the  conduct  of 
human  life."  The  number  twenty-two  corresponds 
with  the  number  of  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet, 
and  is  usual  with  early  Christian  writers.     In  the 


INTRODUCTION  xix 

Hebrew  Bible,  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles 
counted  as  single,  not  double,  books  and  there  was 
other  coupling  of  books  which  stand  separate  in  the 
English  Bible — as,  for  instance,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah, 
Jeremiah  and  Lamentations.  Questions  of  order 
and  arrangement  remained  accordingly  for  later 
settlement,  but,  for  present  purposes,  the  history  of 
the  Hebrew  Old  Testament  ends  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Canon. 


II.      THE   SEPTUAGINT  AND  THE  VULGATE. 

Two  versions  of  the  Bible  in  other  languages 
have  special  significance  in  the  history  of  the  English 
Bible.  The  most  important  Greek  version,  the 
*'  Septuagint,"  owes  its  name  to  the  tradition  that 
it  was  the  work  of  some  seventy  men.  In  its  elab- 
orated form  the  story  went  so  far  as  to  claim  that 
the  translation  was  made  independently  by  seventy- 
two  Jews,  working  in  separate  cells,  and  that  their 
results  when  compared  were  found  identical,  and 
hence  accepted  as  inspired.  The  marked  inequal- 
ities of  different  parts  of  the  work  sufficiently  dis- 
prove this  legend  and  seem  to  support  the  belief  that 
the  version  was  the  product  of  different  times  as 
well  as  of  different  hands.  Probably  begun  about 
three  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era,  the 
Septuagint  was  the  version  used  by  the  Alexandrian 
Jews  and  by  the  early  Christians.  From  it  were 
taken  practically  all  the  quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament  which  occur  in  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment. In  the  first  place,  then,  it  ultimately,  though 
indirectly,  influenced  the  English  translations  of  the 


XX  INTRODUCTION 

Greek  New  Testament  in  form  of  literary  ex- 
pression. In  the  second  place,  it  gave  the  modern 
order  of  arrangement  of  the  Old  Testament  books. 
The  Hebrew  Canon,  it  will  be  recalled,  had  arranged 
its  three  layers  in  chronological  order  of  develop- 
ment— the  Law,  the  Prophets,  the  Other  Writings. 
The  Septuagint  substituted  a  literary  rearrangement 
— the  historical  books  in  proper  sequence,  then  the 
poetic  and  wisdom  books,  and  finally  the  prophets. 
In  the  third  place,  the  Septuagint  supplied  to 
English  translators  the  apocryphal  books,  which 
were  not  included  in  the  Hebrew  Canon  but  which 
possess  at  least  marked  literary  importance. 

Far  more  significant,  however,  in  influence  upon 
the  English  Bible  was  the  great  Latin  version  known 
as  the  **  Vulgate."  The  name,  derived  from  the 
Latin  '' vulgata  "  (supply  "  editio  "  or  *'versio"), 
signifies  that  it  was  the  commonly  known  version. 
Down  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  in  fact,  it 
v^as  the  Bible  of  the  European  Church.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  fourth  century  a.d.,  the  various 
Latin  texts  of  the  Scriptures  had  become  so  much 
corrupted  that  revision  was  imperative.  For  this 
important  work  the  Pope  selected  the  great  scholar 
best  known  as  Saint  Jerome.  Jerome's  work  con- 
sisted partly  of  revision  of  previous  texts  and  partly 
of  direct  translation  from  the  original  Hebrew  of 
the  Old  Testament.  At  first  Jerome's  Bible 
encountered  violent  opposition  in  some  quarters,  but 
eventually  it  established  itself  as  the  recognized 
version  of  the  Western  Church.  In  process  of 
time  errors  of  copyists  and  commentators  corrupted 
Jerome's  text  so  that  there  grew  up  various  dis- 


INTRODUCTION  xxi 

cordant  versions,  and  there  was  authoritative  re- 
vision of  the  Vulgate  text  at  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century. 

The  Vulgate  vitally  influenced  the  English  Bible 
because  it  was  the  Bible  of  the  Early  English  trans- 
lators. The  virile  strength  and  rich  beauty  of 
Jerome's  Latin  animated  and  colored  the  literary 
style  of  Tyndale  and  his  followers.  Jerome's 
Latin  was  not  classical,  but  that  Low  Latin  which 
admitted  more  colloquial  forms  and  greater  flex- 
ibility of  word-order  and  construction.  Further- 
more, Jerome's  work  was  important  in  giving  to 
the  varying  styles  of  earlier  hands  a  common  unity 
of  expression.  The  Vulgate  influenced  directly  the 
phrasing  of  specific  passages  even  in  the  King  James 
version,  and  in  a  larger  sense  stamped  its  impress 
infallibly  on  the  general  literary  style  of  the  English 
translators. 


III.       ENGLISH  VERSIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

Anglo-Saxon  literature  contains  various  versions 
of  parts  of  the  Bible,  ranging  from  the  free  Para- 
phrase of  Csedmon,  the  seventh-century  monk  who, 
according  to  the  venerable  Bede,  "  sang  the  creation 
of  the  world,  the  origin  of  man,  and  all  the  history 
of  Genesis,"  together  with  many  other  things,  to 
Bede's  own  translation  of  the  Gospel  according  to 
St.  John.  It  is  characteristic  of  that  devout  spirit 
which  linked  naturally  the  sacred  with  the  secular 
that  Alfred  the  Great  prefixed  to  his  "  Book  of 
Laws,"  in  somewhat  altered  form,  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments of  Moses.     In  general,  the  Anglo-Saxon 


xxii  INTRODUCTION 

Biblical  versions  now  extant  include  the  Psalter,  the 
Gospels,  the  Pentateuch^  and  some  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment historical  books.  Doubtless  there  were  other 
versions  now  lost,  but  though  such  works  may  have 
fostered  the  spirit  of  devotion,  they  can  have  had 
little  tangible  influence  upon  the  letter  of  the  text 
of  the  English  Bible.  After  the  Norman  Conquest 
there  were  poetical  paraphrases,  like  the  Ormulum, 
written  by  the  monk  Orm,  or  Ormin,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  finally 
some  fourteenth-century  versions  of  the  Psalter, 
the  earHest  in  English  prose. 

The  first  complete  English  translation  of  the 
Bible  was  primarily  the  work  of  John  Wyclifife, 
the  "  Morning  Star  of  the  Reformation."  Assisted 
by  Nicholas  of  Hereford,  who  translated  much 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  of  the  Apocrypha,  he 
rendered  the  Bible  from  the  Latin  of  the  Vulgate 
into  English,  about  1382.  Wycliffe  died  in  1384, 
and  a  few  years  later  John  Purvey  revised  the 
work.  Copies  of  the  versions  circulated  in  manu- 
script, despite  the  opposition  of  the  Church  and  its 
prosecution  of  many  who  persisted  in  owning  or 
reading  the  Bible  in  English. 

From  the  scholarly  standpoint  the  chief  defect  of 
Wycliffe's  Bible  is  that  it  was  translated  not  from 
the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek,  but  from  the  Latin 
of  the  imperfect  Vulgate  texts  then  current.  From 
the  popular  standpoint  its  chief  drawback  was  that 
it  had  to  circulate  in  manuscript.  Two  mighty 
influences  of  the  fifteenth  century  tended  to  remove 
these  obstacles  to  the  advance  of  the  English  Bible. 
The  Renaissance,  or  revival  of  learning  in  Europe, 


INTRODUCTION  xxiii 

spread  the  study  of  Greek  among  scholars ;  the 
discovery  of  the  art  of  printing  heralded  the  time 
when  the  Bible  should  become  generally  accessible 
to  the  people.  The  fall  of  Constantinople,  in  1453, 
turned  the  tide  of  Greek  scholarship  to  Italy. 
Thence,  scholars  like  Colet  and  Grocyn,  who  had 
studied  in  Italy,  brought  to  England  the  new 
enthusiasm  for  learning.  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
began  to  teach  Greek,  and  finally,  in  15 16,  Erasmus 
published  the  first  edition  of  his  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment. Later  editions  were  used  by  Luther  and 
Tyndale.  Fortunately,  to  Colet  and  Erasmus, 
scholarship  was  the  means  to  a  great  end.  For 
centuries  theologians  had  been,  to  use  Bacon's 
phrase,  cymini  sectores,  "  hairsplitters."  Colet  and 
Erasmus  declared  that  the  Bible  could  be  readily 
understood  by  all  and  should  not  be  reserved  for  a 
handful  of  theologians.  "  I  totally  dissent,"  wrote 
Erasmus,  ^'  from  those  who  are  unwilling  that  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,  translated  into  the  vulgar  tongue, 
should  be  read  by  private  individuals,  as  if  Christ 
had  taught  such  subtle  doctrines  that  they  can  with 
difficulty  be  understood  by  a  very  few  theologians, 
or  as  if  the  strength  of  the  Christian  religion  lay  in 
men's  ignorance  of  it." 

The  teachings  of  Colet  and  Erasmus  found  yet 
more  powerful  utterance  in  William  Tyndale. 
Whether  he  studied  directly  under  Colet  at  Oxford 
and  under  Erasmus  at  Cambridge  is  questionable, 
but  at  all  events  his  years  at  both  universities 
brought  him  close  to  the  enthusiasm  they  had 
kindled.  The  desire  of  Erasmus  that  the  husband- 
man   might   sing   parts    of    the    Scriptures    at   his 


xxiv  INTRODUCTION 

plough  is  echoed  in  Tyndale's  remark  to  a  "  learned 
man  " :  "  If  God  spare  my  life,  ere  many  years  I 
will  cause  a  boy  that  driveth  the  plough  shall  know 
more  of  the  Scripture  than  thou  doest."  Believing 
that  *'  it  was  impossible  to  establish  the  lay  people 
in  any  truth  except  the  Scripture  were  plainly 
laid  before  their  eyes  in  their  mother  tongue,  that 
they  might  see  the  process,  order  and  meaning  of 
the  text,"  Tyndale  set  himself  to  translate  the  Bible 
into  English.  Unable  to  accomplish  his  task  either 
in  the  country  or  in  London,  where  he  vainly  sought 
the  aid  of  the  Bishop  of  London,  he  left  England 
forever.  Even  on  the  Continent  danger  threatened. 
Enemies  interrupted  his  attempt  to  print  his  work 
in  Cologne,  but  in  the  Lutheran  city  of  Worms  he 
completed  both  the  annotated  quarto  edition  of  the 
New  Testament  begun  at  Cologne  and  an  octavo 
edition  without  marginal  notes — the  first  English 
versions   translated   from   the   original   Greek. 

Despite  warnings  to  Henry  VIIL  of  the  impend- 
ing *'  infection  and  danger,"  despite  determined 
efforts  to  destroy  or  to  exclude  Tyndale's  trans- 
lation, copies  of  his  New  Testament  arrived  in 
England  early  in  1526,  and  circulated  rapidly. 
Attacks  upon  the  translation  as  heretical  and  con- 
fiscation and  burning  of  copies  of  the  work  were 
alike  ineffective  in  stilling  the  tide  of  awakening 
popular  interest.  Some  four  years  later  Tyndale 
published  a  translation  from  the  Hebrew  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch, and  in  1534  a  revision  of  his  New  Testa- 
ment. When  Tyndale's  Testament  was  burned  in 
England  he  wrote :  "  In  burning  the  New  Testament, 
they  did  none  other  thing  than  I  looked  for;  no 


INTRODUCTION  xxv 

more  shall  they  do  if  they  burn  me  also,  if  it  be 
God's  will  it  shall  so  be."  The  words  were  pro- 
phetic. Betrayed  in  Antwerp,  Tyndale  met  death  at 
the  stake  in  1536.  In  his  Book  of  Martyrs,  Foxe 
rightly  called  him  "  an  apostle  of  England." 

Tyndale  was  the  father  of  the  modern  English 
Bible.  He  fixed  essentially  its  literary  style.  Study 
of  his  vocabulary  and  phrase  emphasizes  the  resem- 
blances rather  than  the  differences  between  his  text 
and  later  versions.  Clearness,  simplicity,  vigor, 
vividness,  dignity — these  were  the  qualities  which 
Tyndale  impressed  upon  the  English  Bible.  To 
other  revisers  we  owe  countless  and  important 
changes  in  detail;  to  Tyndale  we  owe  the  very 
character  of  the  noblest  English  prose.  Scholarly 
research  has  shown  the  remarkable  influence  of 
Tyndale  upon  the  Authorised  Version,  even  in  the 
reproduction  of  faults  and  inconsistencies  in  his 
rendering.  Partisans  of  Wycliffe  have  sometimes 
sought  to  transfer  to  him  much  of  the  credit  due  to 
Tyndale,  but  few  who  study  the  biography  of  Tyn- 
dale will  be  disposed  to  question  the  sincerity  of  his 
statement  that  he  had  ''  no  man  to  counterfeit 
[imitate],  neither  was  holpen  with  English  of  any 
that  had  interpreted  the  same  or  such  like  thing  in 
the  Scripture  beforetime." 

Tyndale  never  translated  the  entire  Bible.  The 
first  complete  translation  into  English  by  a  single 
hand  was  published  by  Miles  Coverdale,  in  1535.  In 
the  decade  since  Tyndale's  New  Testament  had  ap- 
peared, Henry  VIII.  had  been  proclaimed  supreme 
head  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  had  broken 
with  the  Pope,  who  had  refused  to  sanction  his 


xxvi  INTRODUCTION 

marriage  to  Anne  Boleyn.  Tyndale's  work  had 
gone  forth  without  even  bearing  his  name;  Cover- 
dale  was  able  to  issue  his  work  under  the  patronage 
of  Thomas  Cromwell,  and  with  a  dedication  to  the 
king.  Coverdale's  translation  was  not  direct,  but 
was  based  on  "  sundry  translations,  not  only  in 
Latin,  but  also  of  the  Dutch  [German]  interpreters," 
and  on  Tyndale.  His  own  modest  disclaimers  show 
that  he  spoke  not  with  authority,  but  as  one  of  the 
scribes.  His  chief  services  were  in  maintaining 
Tyndale's  simplicity  of  diction,  while  imparting 
greater  finish  and  rhythm  of  phrase,  and  in  com- 
pleting the  Old  Testament  translation. 

In  1537  appeared  Matthew's  Bible.  Possibly  the 
name  of  Thomas  Matthew,  which  stands  on  the 
title-page  as  that  of  the  translator,  was  only  assumed 
by  John  Rogers,  who  edited  the  work.  In  all 
probability  Matthew's  Bible  contains  for  the  first 
time  a  translation  by  Tyndale  of  the  books  from 
Joshua  through  Chronicles,  which  he  might  readily 
have  intrusted  to  Rogers  during  his  association 
with  him  in  Antwerp.  In  general,  Matthew's  Bible 
followed  the  translation  of  Tyndale,  supplying  the 
missing  parts  from  Coverdale's  complete  version.^ 

Tyndale's  translation  had  been  vigorously  assailed 
by  the  king;  Coverdale's  first  edition,  though  irot 
directly  sanctioned  by  the  king,  was  not  suppressed, 
and  the  editions  of  1537  were  "  set  forth  with  the 
king's  most  gracious  license;"  Matthew's  Bible, 
though  it  contained  Tyndale's  condemned  work,  was 
**  allowed  by  his  [the  king's]  authority  to  be  bought 

^  Of  minor  importance  is  Taverner's  Bible,  printed  in 
London  in  1539,  based  chiefly  on  Matthew's. 


INTRODUCTION  xxvii 

and  read  within  this  reahii."  Still  more  authorita- 
tive sanction  by  the  government  was  accorded  to 
the  ''  Great  Bible "  of  1539.  Thomas  Cromwell, 
who  had  been  instrumental  in  securing  the  king's 
license  for  the  English  Bible,  sent  Miles  Coverdale 
to  Paris  to  prepare  a  new  version  based  on 
Matthew's.  The  work  was  interrupted  by  the 
power  of  the  Inquisition,  but  Coverdale  and  Graf- 
ton, his  printer,  escaped  to  London  with  workmen, 
presses,  and  most  of  their  printed  sheets,  and  com- 
pleted the  work.  In  1540  a  second  edition  appeared, 
with  a  preface  by  Archbishop  Cranmer,  and  though 
the  "  Great  Bible  "  was  due  mainly  to  Coverdale's 
labor  and  Cromwell's  zealous  support,  the  work  is 
frequently  known  as  "  Cranmer's  Bible."  When 
the  king  issued  a  favorable  declaration  "  to  be  read 
by  all  curates  upon  the  publishing  of  the  Bible  in 
English,"  when  six  Bibles  were  set  up  in  St.  Paul's 
Church  to  be  read  by  the  people,  and  when  six 
editions  of  the  Great  Bible  were  printed  in  1540  and 
1 541,  it  seemed  that  the  English  Bible  had  become 
at  last  an  open  book. 

The  current  so  favorable  to  the  English  Bible 
soon  turned.  In  1543  Parliament  passed  a  stringent 
act  restricting  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  pro- 
scribed Tyndale's  work,  and  required  the  excision 
of  notes  in  other  copies  of  the  Bible.  Three  years 
later  Coverdale's  New  Testament  came  also  under 
the  ban.  The  death  of  Henry  and  the  accession 
of  Edward  VI.,  in  1547,  checked  the  reaction.  In 
the  six  and  a  half  years  of  Edward's  brief  reign 
there  appeared  thirteen  editions  of  the  entire  Bible 
and  thirty-five  of  the  New  Testament.     The  young 


xxviii  INTRODUCTION 

king  not  merely  removed  Henry's  restrictions  upon 
the  use  of  the  Bible,  but  required  that  copies  should 
be  set  up  for  reading  in  the  churches. 

In  the  reign  of  Mary  the  pendulum  swung  back 
again  to  the  side  of  reaction.  Rogers  and  Cranmer 
suffered  death,  Coverdale  and  many  other  English 
Protestants  became  refugees  on  the  Continent,  and 
the  English  press  was  shut  against  the  Bible. 
Geneva,  the  home  of  Calvin,  was  a  natural  refuge 
for  the  English  Calvinists.  From  that  little  band 
of  exiles  came  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible  of 
wide-reaching  significance.  The  Genevan  Testa- 
ment, probably  the  work  of  Whittingham,  who  had 
married  Calvin's  sister,  was  published  in  1557.  An 
interesting  detail  connected  with  the  work  is  that 
it  gave  to  English  readers  for  the  first  time  the 
modern  system  of  short  verses  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  text.  With  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  in 
1558,  most  of  the  Protestant  exiles  returned  to 
England,  but. two  or  three  remained  with  Whit- 
tingham to  complete  the  Biblical  translation.  The 
Genevan  Bible  ^  was  printed  in  1560.  Everything 
seemed  to  conspire  in  favor  of  its  success.  The 
work  had  been  accomplished  under  circumstances  in 
reality  favorable.  The  very  exile  of  the  translators 
deepened  their  solemn  devotion  to  their  task,  and  in 
Geneva  their  labors  were  uninterrupted  by  political 
turmoil  at  home.  The  work  was  brought  forth 
after  Elizabeth  had  succeeded  to  the  throne.  It 
was  printed  in  Roman  letter,  with  chapters  divided 

'  Popularly,  it  is  known  as  the  "  Breeches  Bible,"  on 
account  of  the  rendering  "  made  themselves  breeches,'*  in 
the  third  chapter  of  Genesis. 


INTRODUCTION  xxix 

into  verses,  and  in  quarto  form  instead  of  in  the 
unwieldy  folios  that  had  preceded  it.  The  marginal 
comments  were  clear  and  to  the  point.  The  dom- 
inant note  of  the  translation  was  faithful  accuracy 
to  the  original  texts.  Although  it  did  not  supplant 
the  Great  Bible  in  English  ecclesiastical  use,  the 
Genevan  Bible  was  so  popular  that  some  seventy 
editions  of  all  descriptions  were  issued  during  Eliz- 
abeth's reign.  For  the  larger  part  of  a  century  it 
was  the  household  Bible  of  the  English  people. 

The  popularity  of  the  Genevan  Bible  soon  brought 
to  light  the  imperfections  of  the  Great  Bible,  which 
was  still  in  Church  use  since  the  Genevan  Bible 
was  colored  by  traces  of  Calvinistic  theology  in  its 
notes.  Archbishop  Parker  determined  with  the  aid 
of  various  scholars  to  make  a  satisfactory  revision. 
Since  many  of  his  helpers  were  bishops,  the  work 
which  finally  appeared  in  1568  was  known  as  the 
Bishops'  Bible.  As  different  books  were  assigned 
to  different  men,  the  translation  wa^  not  uniform, 
and  though  it  obtained  the  sanction  of  the  Church, 
it  deservedly  failed  to  supplant  the  Genevan  Bible 
in  general  use. 

In  1582  was  published  at  Rheims  a  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  made  by  Gregory  Martin  and 
other  Oxford  scholars,  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 
William  Allen,  founder  of  the  Romish  Seminary 
at  Douai,  which  was  transferred,  in  1578,  for  a 
time  to  Rheims,  sought  to  reestablish  the  power  of 
the  Church  of  Rome  in  England.  The  translation 
which  he  doubtless  suggested  was,  accordingly,  to 
be  based  on  the  Vulgate,  the  accepted  text  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.     The  appearance  of  the 


XXX  INTRODUCTION 

Old  Testament  translation,  at  Douai,  was  delayed 
until  1609-10.  These  works  are  usually  known  as 
the  Rhemish  New  Testament  and  the  Douai  Bible. 
In  versions  based  on  the  Vulgate  it  was  natural  that 
Latin  diction  should  strongly  color  the  translation. 
Many  renderings  of  the  Rhemish  New  Testament 
were  retained,  in  the  Authorised  Version,  with 
marked  gain  in  richness  and  variety  of  phrase. 
Thus  the  work  of  scholars  on  the  Continent  directly 
aided  the  next  translation  in  England,  the  King 
James  or  Authorised  Version. 

IV.       THE    KING    JAMES    OR    AUTHORISED   VERSION. 

At  the  accession  of  James  I.,  the  two  English 
versions  of  the  Bible  in  widest  use  were  the  Bishops' 
Bible,  sanctioned  for  ecclesiastical  use,  and  the 
Genevan  Bible,  the  common  version  of  the  people. 
This  unfortunate  conflict  of  authority  was  soon  to 
be  settled.  In  January,  1604,  there  was  held  the 
Hampton  Court  Conference,  convoked  by  the  new 
king  to  settle  differences  between  the  Puritans  and 
the  Church  of  England.  Among  the  minor  pro- 
ceedings one  developed  ultimately  into  paramount 
importance.  Dr.  Reynolds,  President  of  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford,  a  Puritan  leader,  *'  moved 
his  Majesty  that  there  might  be  a  new  translation 
of  the  Bible,  because  those  which  were  allowed  in 
the  reign  of  King  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI. 
were  corrupt,  and  not  answerable  to  the  truth  of 
the  original."  Although  the  Conference  adjourned 
without  further  steps  in  this  matter,  the  king  evi- 
dently approved  the  suggestion.  On  July  22  he 
wrote  to  the  Bishop  of  London  that  he  had  *'  ap- 


INTRODUCTION  xxxi 

pointed  certain  learned  men,  to  the  number  of  four 
and  fifty,  for  the  translating  of  the  Bible,"  and  in- 
structed him  to  enlist  the  aid  of  learned  scholars, 
and  to  provide  preferment  in  the  Church  for  the 
translators.  Serious  work  on  the  revision  hardly 
began  before  1607.  The  lists  of  translators  now 
extant  give  but  forty-seven  names  instead  of  the 
fifty-four  of  the  king's  letter,  and  doubtless  there 
were  various  modifications  of  the  original  plans. 
The  work  was  finally  executed  by  six  companies, 
two  at  Westminster,  two  at  Cambridge,  and  two 
at  Oxford.  They  divided  among  them  the  books 
not  merely  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  but  of 
the  Apocryp^.a.  The  rules  of  revision  provided 
that  the  Bishops'  Bible  "  be  followed,  and  as  little 
altered  as  the  truth  of  the  original  will  permit,"  but 
"  these  translations  to  be  used  when  they  agree 
better  with  the  text  than  the  Bishops'  Bible:  Tin- 
dale's,  Matthew's,  Coverdale's,  Whitchurch's,^ 
Geneva."  No  marginal  notes  were  to  be  afifixed 
save  for  explanation  of  difficult  Hebrew  and  Greek 
words,  but  cross-references  from  one  part  of  the 
Bible  to  another  were  provided.  In  each  company 
the  dififerent  scholars  were  at  first  to  work  inde- 
pendently, then  to  compare  notes,  and  then  to  submit 
their  joint  results  to  the  other  companies.  Knotty 
points  were  to  be  adjusted  in  a  general  meeting  ''  of 
the  chief  persons  of  each  company."  The  final  re- 
vision occupied  nine  months,  and  was  followed  by 
the  publication  of  the  work  in  161 1. 

It  is  natural  to  ask  what  were  the  chief  reasons 
for  the  supremacy  of  the  Authorised  Version.     It 
'  Whitchurch  was  the  printer  of  the  Great  Bible. 


xxxii  INTRODUCTION 

should,  indeed,  be  remembered  that  it  did  not  win 
immediately  unanimous  favor.  Puritans  missed  the 
Calvinistic  tinge  of  the  notes  and  commentary  of 
the  Genevan  Bible;  others  objected  because  they 
thought  that  parts  of  it  were  unfairly  rendered. 
Within  half  a  century,  however,  the  Authorised 
Version  grew  steadily  into  general  acceptance. 
Three  main  characteristics,  at  least,  account  for  the 
enduring  vitality  of  the  Authorised  Version — depth 
of  scholarship,  breadth  of  spirit,  and  beauty  of 
diction.  In  the  first  place,  no  previous  translation 
of  the  Bible  had  been  made  with  equal  labor  or 
scholarly  research.  The  Address  to  the  Reader 
contrasts  the  slowness  of  the  work  with  the  "  post- 
ing haste  "  of  the  Septuagint,  and  the  careful  re- 
vision with  the  uncorrected  work  of  Jerome. 
Previous  translations  and  commentaries  of  English 
and  Continental  scholars  and  the  Aramaic  and 
Syriac  versions  were  used  in  connection  w4th  the 
original  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts.  "  Neither  did 
we  disdain,"  wrote  the  translators,  *'  to  revise  that 
which  we  had  done,  and  to  bring  back  to  the  anvil 
that  which  we  had  hammered :  but  having  and  using 
as  great  helps  as  were  needful,  and  fearing  no  re- 
proach for  slowness,  nor  coveting  praise  for  expe- 
dition, we  have  at  the  length,  through  the  good  hand 
of  the  Lord  upon  us,  brought  the  work  to  that  pass 
that  you  see." 

In  the  second  place,  the  Authorised  Version  was 
executed  in  a  broad  and  sympathetic  spirit.  The 
provision  for  the  rigid  restriction  of  marginal  notes 
tended  to  substitute  for  the  Calvinistic  tone  of 
the    Genevan    Bible    and    for    the    sectarian    bias 


INTRODUCTION  xxxiii 

elsewhere  discoverable  a  spirit  of  wider  tolerance. 
Testimony  seems  to  prove  that  King  James  objected 
to  the  inclusion  of  marginal  notes  because  some 
annotations  in  the  Genevan  Bible  showed  scant 
respect  for  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of  kings, 
but  in  any  case  the  omission  of  matter  that  might 
excite  controversy  was  a  decided  gain.  It  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  broad  spirit  in  which  the  revisers 
worked  that,  instead  of  holding  to  the  letter  of  their 
instructions,  they  availed  themselves  of  the  best  in 
works  like  the  Roman  Catholic  Rhemish  Version. 
Puritan,  Churchman,  and  independent  scholar 
worked  in  common  accord,  and  struck  a  happy  mean 
between  what  they  termed  "  the  scrupulosity  of  the 
Puritans  "  and  "  the  obscurity  "  of  some  scholars. 
Conceived  in  such  spirit,  the  Authorised  Version 
became  the  Bible  not  of  a  particular  sect,  but  of  the 
English  people. 

In  the  third  place,  the  Authorised  Version  set  the 
highest  standard  in  simplicity  and  beauty  of  diction. 
Through  the  process  of  years  the  English  Version 
of  the  Bible  had  grown  steadily  in  wealth  of  vocab- 
ulary and  flexibility  of  phrase.  Objection  has  been 
made  to  the  frequent  practice  of  rendering  the  same 
word  in  various  ways,  but  the  loss  in  strict  accuracy 
is,  from  the  literary  standpoint,  more  than  ofifset 
by  the  gain  in  richness  and  variety  of  expression. 
Never  probably  was  the  English  vocabulary  better 
fitted  for  the  translators'  purpose  than  when  it  was 
surcharged  with  the  rich,  virile,  and  concrete  words 
and  imagery  inherited  from  the  Elizabethan  period. 
Age  cannot  wither  it,  nor  custom  stale  its  infinite 
variety.     Subsequent    additions    have    enormously 


xxxiv  INTRODUCTION 

increased  the  vocabulary  of  scientific,  philosophical, 
and  abstract  terms,  but  these  would  have  clogged 
rather  than  enriched  the  Biblical  style.  The  Eliza- 
bethans and  their  immediate  successors  had  to  a 
marked  degree  the  faculty  of  choosing  the  right 
word  for  the  right  place.  The  phrasing  of  the 
Authorised  Version  has  that  inevitableness  which 
carries  conviction.  The  matchless  simplicity  of  the 
Biblical  style  has  been  a  powerful  factor  in  main- 
taining its  influence.  Not  even  Bunyan,  who  felt 
so  strongly  its  potency,  makes  such  an  immediate 
and  direct  appeal. 

Striking  testimony  as  to  "  the  uncommon  beauty 
and  marvellous  English  "  of  the  Authorised  Version 
is  found  in  the  words  of  the  Romanist  Father 
Faber  :^  *'  It  lives  on  the  ear  like  a  music  that  can 
never  be  forgotten,  like  the  sound  of  church  bells, 
which  the  convert  scarcely  knows  how  he  can 
forego.  Its  felicities  seem  often  to  be  almost  things 
rather  than  words.  It  is  part  of  the  national  mind, 
and  the  anchor  of  the  national  seriousness.  .  .  . 
The  memory  of  the  dead  passes  into  it.  The  potent 
traditions  of  childhood  are  stereotyped  in  its  verses. 
It  is  the  representative  of  a  man's  best  moments ; 
all  that  there  has  been  about  him  of  soft,  and  gentle, 
and  pure,  and  penitent,  and  good  speaks  to  him  for 
ever  out  of  his  English  Bible." 

V.      THE    REVISED    VERSION. 

For  some  two  centuries  and  a  half  the  Authorised 
Version  held  the  field  with  little  challenge  to  its 

«  Quoted  in  J.  Paterson  Smyth's  "How  we  got  Our 
Bible,"  pp.  iio-iii. 


INTRODUCTION  xxxv 

supremacy.  When  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
was  issued  in  revised  form  in  1662,  the  Psalter  of 
the  Great  Bible  was  still  retained,  but  with  few 
exceptions  the  text  of  the  161 1  translation  was 
adopted  elsewhere,  as  in  the  Gospels  and  Epistles. 
In  the  nineteenth  century,  however,  the  multiplica- 
tion of  ancient  manuscripts  hitherto  unknown,  the 
advance  in  textual  scholarship,  and  the  inevitable 
changes  in  the  English  vocabulary  began  to  present 
themselves  increasingly  as  reasons  for  a  revision 
of  the  Authorised  Version.  These  tendencies  cul- 
minated in  February,  1870,  in  the  action  taken  by 
the  Convocation  of  Canterbury :  "  That  a  Committee 
of  both  Houses  be  appointed,  with  power  to  confer 
with  any  Committee  that  may  be  appointed  by  the 
Convocation  of  the  Northern  Province,  to  report 
upon  the  desirableness  of  a  revision  of  the  Author- 
ised Version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
whether  by  marginal  notes  or  otherwise,  in  all  those 
passages  where  plain  and  clear  errors,  whether  in 
the  Hebrew  or  Greek  text  originally  adopted  by  the 
translators,  or  in  the  translation  made  from  the 
same,  shall,  on  due  investigation,  be  found  to  exist." 
Though  the  Northern  Province  declined  to  co- 
operate, it  was  determined  to  proceed  with  the  work 
of  revision,  dividing  it  between  an  Old  Testament 
Company  and  a  New  Testament  Company.  A 
distinguished  array  of  divines  and  scholars  under- 
took the  work,  both  companies  holding  their  first 
meetings  in  June,  1870.  Not  long  afterwards  steps 
were  taken  to  enlist  the  aid  of  American  scholars, 
and  two  American  companies  began  their  labors  in 
October,   1872.     The  revision  of  the  New  Testa- 


xxxvi  INTRODUCTION 

ment  was  completed  in  1880,  and  the  entire  Revised 
Version  of  the  Bible  appeared  in  May,  1885. 

The  very  name,  Revised  Version,  shows  that  the 
intent  was  to  make  not  a  new  translation  of  the 
Bible,  but  a  revision  of  the  accepted  translation. 
Of  the  general  principles  adopted  by  the  revisers 
it  is  significant  that  the  first  two  are  these:  "  i.  To 
introduce  as  few  alterations  as  possible  into  the 
text  of  the  Authorised  Version  consistently  with 
faithfulness.  2.  To  limit,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
expression  of  such  alterations  to  the  language  of 
the  Authorised  and  earlier  English  Versions." 
Whether  the  Revised  Version  will  ultimately  sup- 
plant the  Authorised  Version  is  a  question  to  be 
determined  in  the  future.  The  superior  scholarship 
and  textual  accuracy  of  the  revision  is  conceded 
almost  without  question.  From  the  literary  stand- 
point, the  greatest  gain  seems  to  be  in  the  emphasis 
upon  literary  construction,  as  in  the  grouping  of 
many  verses  into  a  single  paragraph  with  reference 
to  the  thought,  and  in  recognition  of  the  dis- 
tinction between  prose  and  verse  in  Hebrew  litera- 
ture. Notwithstanding  the  many  merits  of  the 
Revised  Version,  the  fact  remains  that  from  the 
literary  viewpoint  it  must  still  concede  the  pride  of 
place  to  the  Authorised  Version.  It  is  the  Author- 
ised Version  which  for  almost  three  centuries  has 
been  an  integral  part  of  English  literature,  the 
source  of  endless  literary  reference,  the  crown- 
ing achievement  of  English  prose.  Gain  in  pre- 
cision of  rendering  in  the  Revised  Version  has 
not  outweighed  the  sacrifice  of  somewhat  of  the 
breadth   and   elemental   vigor   of   the   King  James 


INTRODUCTION  xxxvii 

Version.  Whether,  as  has  been  suggested,  the 
spirit  of  scholarly  revisers  in  Uiese  latter  days 
sinks  inevitably  below  that  of  men  who  stood 
close  to  martyrs  whose  blood  had  consecrated  the 
pages  of  the  Bible  translation,  or  whether  modern 
imitation  lacks  Elizabethan  virility  of  diction  are 
questions  not  to  be  settled  by  mathematical  proof. 
But,  at  least  for  our  day  and  generation,  the  Bible 
of  English  Literature  is  still  the  Authorised  Version 
of  1611. 


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